La detección magnética llega a la escala atómica

Científicos del Centro de Física de Materiales (País Vasco) y diversas universidades han logrado una precisión sin precedentes en la detección magnética a escala atómica colocando un diminuto imán molecular en la punta de un microscopio de efecto túnel. El avance facilitará las investigaciones y el desarrollo de dispositivos en esta escala tan pequeña.
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

Un ‘ángulo mágico’ dota al grafeno de nuevas propiedades extraordinarias

Investigadores del Instituto de Ciencias Fotónicas han descubierto que la disposición del grafeno en dos capas superpuestas y rotadas 1,1 grados ofrece muchos más estados superconductores y correlacionados que los descritos hasta ahora, además de toda una nueva gama de estados magnéticos y topológicos. El estudio abre el camino hacia la física desconocida que parece estar detrás de estos fenómenos.
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

DESI abre sus 5.000 ojos para capturar los colores del cosmos

El Dark Energy Spectroscopic Instrument (DESI), un nuevo instrumento diseñado para cartografiar con precisión el Universo, empieza su etapa de pruebas final. Investigadores del Institut de Física d'Altes Energies (IFAE), el Instituto de Ciencias del Espacio (ICE, CSIC), el Institut d’Estudis Espacials de Catalunya (IEEC),  el Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT) y el Instituto de Física Teórica (IFT, UAM-CSIC) participan en el proyecto.
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

DESI abre sus 5.000 ojos para capturar los colores del universo

El nuevo instrumento DESI, desarrollado para investigar la misteriosa energía oscura y crear el mapa 3D más preciso del universo, ha comenzado a operar en pruebas en el Observatorio Kitt Peak de Arizona (EE UU). Con sus 5.000 posicionadores robóticos puede apuntar simultáneamente a otros tantos puntos del cielo para atrapar la luz de multitud de estrellas y galaxias.
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

Higía puede destronar a Ceres como el menor planeta enano del sistema solar

Hasta ahora se consideraba a Ceres como el planeta enano más pequeño del sistema solar, pero un instrumento del Observatorio Europeo Austral ha revelado que podría haber otro menor: Higía, un esférico objeto del cinturón principal de asteroides. La Unión Astronómica Internacional tiene la última palabra. 
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

Cómo extraer información cuántica oculta en una fuente de luz

Investigadores europeos han desarrollado una técnica para extraer la información cuántica oculta en una imagen que contiene información tanto clásica como cuántica. El avance abre un nuevo camino para observar muestras ultrasensibles con microscopios mejorados con tecnología cuántica.
via Matemáticas, Física y Química https://ift.tt/18ZbcUb

Panama: Unidentified Aerial Object Recorded Over Shopping Center

Unidentified Aerial Object recorded over a shopping center in Panama. Source: Pedro Ramirez, ufologist. He writes: A new piece of UFO evidence has appeared in Central America. As we have documented, the UFO phenomenon has not stopped. The alien presence remains 'active' on various points of the planet. October 9, 2019: Jose Angel Castro was on his way to the shopping center with a companion when they saw the 'flying saucer' some 500 meters distant. It was a cloudy day with rain about to fall, the time was 10:31 in the morning. Before recording, they confirmed that it was a indeed a UFO - the object had domes on its upper and lower sections, visible to the unaided eye. They tried to draw the attention of the workers engaged in maintenance at the shopping center (being closer to the object), but their efforts were fruitless and did not make themselves heard. Jose Angel quickly captured the UFO presence with his cellphone, noticing that the object changed colors throughout the video. What appeared to be "ceramic" white turned silvery. Finally, Jose Angel had managed to see and record a UFO, something he had yearned for. This is part of the conversation I had with Jose Angel Castro a few minutes ago, in which he further confirmed that the video is completely genuine. The time to believe is now.


VIDEO AT: https://ift.tt/2Js6WUl

[Translation (c) 2019 Inexplicata with thanks to Pedro Ramírez and Guillermo Giménez, Planeta UFO]

Inexplicata Podcasts covering items from UFO / paranormal history in Spain, Latin America and the Caribbean

via Inexplicata-The Journal of Hispanic Ufology https://ift.tt/GCRz8J

A Sampling of Freixedo's Work.

From impassioned dissertations on religion and the state of Christianity (mainly Catholicism) in the post Vatican II years to explorations of the paranormal and ufology (which is a subset of the paranormal, a thought found irksome by some), Salvador Freixedo's books opened many eyes and minds. In the words of the late Gordon Creighton: "I regard him as one of the most important world-authorities in this accursed subject of UFOs. He was one of the first to see through the fog of lies and misrepresentation, and to perceive that at least a very large part of our confounded subject is of a downright demonic nature. (Which, of course, nobody wants to hear!) - [Flying Saucer Review, Vol.36, No.4 Winter 1991]

Inexplicata Podcasts covering items from UFO / paranormal history in Spain, Latin America and the Caribbean

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Salvador Freixedo: The Cosmic Stairways

Salvador Freixedo: The Cosmic Stairways

[This is the third chapter of Freixedo’s landmark Defendámonos de los Dioses (Beware of the Gods). In my humble opinion (albeit biased one, as the translator of the project), it encapsulates everything he endeavored to say about the superhuman, parahuman, metahuman entities that pose as Star Trek-type explorers from other worlds]


Man and the cosmos

The Cosmos is vastly more complex than what it appears to be at first sight, and while this may seen like a paradox, a great number of so-called scientists are the last ones to be aware of this fact, as their minds are overly technified and they believe only that which can be proven by their instruments and calculations is "real" or possible. This, however, is not so. We barely know an infintesimal part of the Cosmos, due to the limitations of the device we employ in the process--our brains--which, in spite of its capabilities in relation to its size, is nonetheless too limited when compared to the vastness and complexity of the Cosmos.

Childishly aided and deceived by religions--by the gods--humans believe themselves to be the center of the Universe. This is what religions have caused us to believe and what we have been repeating for centuries: "All creatures were made for Man", we read in the Bible, but this is merely another untruth to keep our minds at ease.

Man is only one of an infinite number of intelligent, semi-intelligent and non-intelligent beings that populate the endless Universe. Our childishness, when we face and judge the other realities of the Cosmos, is obvious and even hurtful. We are bona fide children as soon as we begin to assess things that we cannot perceive clearly and directly through our senses. We speak of our reality as if it were the only extant reality. We divide creatures into intelligent and non-intelligent solely by the coordinates of our minds and the mechanisms within out brains that capture what we call "reality", and we even go as far as saying that something does not exist or cannot exist because it is "repugnant" to our cerebral engrams. We are perfect little small-town children, earnestly claiming that "our town's fountain is the biggest in the world", just because it shoots out a lot of water.

We could fill many pages simply dealing with the concept of "intelligence", analyzing our own puerility and frivolity whenever we make use of it. We state that animals are not intelligent when, due to cerebral processes, many of them are able to do things that humans are unable to do. Not only that, but there are many groups of animals which--again, due to cerebral functions--manage to get together, organize their work and live in a much more harmonious and "civilized" fashion than human beings.

It isn't that humans believe that we have already improved upon this gregarious lifestyle; the truth is that humans would like to achieve the order and harmony of a termite colony, but we are unable to achieve it and the best we can do is to organize ourselves "democratically" through what are known as political parties, wherein complex-ridden freeloaders make it big by toying with the welfare of millions of their fellow citizens and giving us as finished product wobbly societies of crazed, robotic ants (to say nothing of the totalitarian regimes produced by the primitive mind of some military man or communist paranoia).

When we begin to assess the Cosmos, we must do so much more wisely than when we judge things which surround us and of which we have more or less precise and immediate data than we have about the enormous realities of the Universe. As soon as we cease to see, hear and touch, humans enter the shadow world discussed in Plato's dialogues. Nor can we even be sure of the information that our senses are giving us , nor of the way in which the data is processed by our brains. On many occasions, our abstract intelligence must correct our sensations, although we continue to act as if the latter were valid. When we run our fingertips over, say, a glass of a marble table, our senses tell us that it is a perfectly smooth surface. However, our intelligence knows perfectly well that the surface is in no way smooth, but rather like a sponge, when analyzed under a microscope. Hollow spaces outnumber those that are filled, and if we employ an electron microscope, the entire landscape changes and all turns into holes through which what we call "solid matter" disappears into inter-atomic voids or spaces.

The Universe's truths, and the laws which rule it, elude our brain's comprehension, even if we keep some of these particularities in mind and know how to use them in our lives on a daily basis, we do not know their essence entirely. For example, we have light and gravity, two omnipresent realities in our lives, which are nonetheless two mysteries that science has barely started to unravel.

If the assertion that "all creatures have been made for Man" is false, it is even more untrue that we are the center of the Universe. Mathematics, with their basic probability calculations, go against this statement, and if were somehow true anyway, God's wisdom would come into question, since our planet and its inhabitants hardly constitute a model of perfection.

The Universe is like an infinite stairway which rises from less perfect beings to more perfect ones, and humans dwelling on this planet is no more than one of the many steps on the stairway. The thousands of existing plant and animal species are nothing if not other steps on the same stairway, an immense stairway whose base is formed by what we derisively call matter and whose top is formed by what we call the "realm of the spririt", though we do not understand it well. Above this realm of the spirit, not belonging to anything nor contained within anything else, or understood by anything or anybody, might be that which humans naively refer to as "God".

Having dealt with it already in my book Por qué agoniza el cristianismo, I put aside that serious mistake that humanity commits when faced with the problem of God: not only does it humanize and even kills God, it brazenly attempts to define, explain and dissect him. The christian God is just another object, albeit an intelligent, great and powerful one, but another object nonetheless. The basic sin of Christian theology is having "thingified" God.

God is not, nor can be, any of these things. God is different from anything that the human mind can conceive or imagine. God is to the human mind what the theory of relativity is to a mosquito. If it were not so and the essence of God were readily comprehensible to the human mind, God would not be worth much.


Different steps and stairways


Let us stop talking about the "Incomprehensible" and the only one who really "IS", and concentrate instead on some of the steps of the infinite stairway that constitutes the Universe.

Like we pointed out earlier, Man is just one of the infinite steps on that stairway and is by no means the highest or the center of the Universe, no matter how much we would like to believe that "the Son of God has become flesh on our world and has become as one of us." But to even describe it as a stairway is to convey an incorrect idea: it is not a single stairway but many, in fact. Man is a step on one stairway and the gods are a higher step on another one. No matter how much humans evolve (or re-incarnate on this or other worlds, according to the beliefs of many) they shall never become the same type of gods that we are dealing with here. They will become super-evolved and spiritual beings, possibly superior to the gods in knowledge and qualities, but not precisely like the beings that have interfered with mankind in the present and throughout history.

To make this comparison more readily comprehensible, a corporal of the State Police will never become an Air Force general, no matter how high he rises through the ranks; each branch is separate, even though they have ranks and both belong to the state's armed forces.

Of course, speaking thus we are unable to furnish the sort of proof that scientists like or even fall back upon unquestionable texts (although the "sacred texts" wielded against us will have no effect). We state this through sheer deductive reasoning, in the face of facts that cannot be denied, even though they remain unknown to the vast bulk of humanity due to bias and the tenacity with which they have been concealed by religion and by science. This is our line of thought in view of the fact that many of the great minds of antiquity and the present thought the same, though their voices were largely silenced or ridiculed by the powers that be.

As far as the other steps that form the ladder upon which Man is placed are concerned, if we think a little about nature and its different kingdoms (animal, vegetable, mineral, organic, inorganic, etc.) we can see that there is no sudden gradation among them, meaning that we discover many creatures who appear to belong to two kingdoms at the same time or to be a sort of bridge among them. This is the case, for example, with aminoacids, certain fungi, corals, proteins, etc.

And it will suffice for us to examine the physical composition of the human body, which is simply a summary of all that makes up nature, from the basic elements studied by physics and chemistry to the psychological depths that are researched by psychology or the mystical heights that religions have told us about.

Although some readers might find this strange, there are many schools of thought, some of them older than Christianity, that propose that the souls of animals, after thousands of evolutions, finally become the souls of rational beings. On a lower level, we can see how minerals are absorbed by vegetables and how these are in turn consumed by animals, all of them forming an uninterrupted stairway of atomic, molecular, cellular, psychic and spiritual life along with Mankind.

We cannot say for sure what the next step for man will be after his life on this planet. Advocates of reincarnation assure that we will reappear on Earth in future times and in different circumstances. Those who reject such doctrines tell us that our soul, once freed of the body, passes on to another state in which it shall enjoy or suffer the consequences of its acts in this life. Whichever one is right, almost all of humanity is certain that upon the hour of death, all that is interrupted is protoplasmic life; the essence of our being--our intelligent spirit--passes on to another level of existence or another dimension in which we shall continue to exist in a more or less conscious fashion.


Extrahuman beings


Let us return to what concerns us in this chapter, which is the description of the qualities we have given to these beings we refer to as "the gods". If we barely know anything about the other steps that form the cosmic ladder to which we belong, we can know even less about the steps which form the ladder to which the gods belong to.

However, we can guess at some things if we keep an open mind and do not allow ourselves to swayed by the doctrinaire teachings of religion or science. Here we shall go into, albeit briefly, into a field which is utterly unreal for some but which will be tremendously interesting to those minds who are both aware and willing to analyze the facts. It will be a key to understanding many of the Universe's unknown facets.

We are referring to the existence of other non-human beings, lesser in rank and power than the gods we have been making reference to. We are referring to the existence of "elementals", imps, gnomes, elves, "spirits”and all manner of legendary entities that cause scientists to smile and clergymen to feel uncomfortable. The former because these entities do not wish to undergo their laboratory tests and act in a completely independent manner from the laws nature has decreed for them (!), and the latter because they shatter their entire dogmatic setup, leaving some of their fundamental beliefs looking somewhat threadbare (the classic fairies are not included here, since on many occasions they have been the guise in which the gods have chosen to appear. The thousands of "Marian Apparitions"--without exception-- have been nothing more than the apparitions of fairies but within a Christian context).

The truth of the matter is, whether we like it or not, humanity has always believed--and continues to believe--in the existence of certain mysterious human beings with a certain degree of intelligence and with widely divergent appearances and motives. Circumstantial evidence of the existence (albeit temporary) of these mysterious entities is the undeniable fact that in all races, cultures, ages and at the heart of all religions on all continents, humans have always coined a varied number of names to call the diverse number of entities they would encounter with amazed eyes in the heart of forests, around the bends of trails, on top of a shrub, next to a fountain, in the middle of the sea or invading the privacy of their homes.

Many of the languages of primitive tribes are almost devoid of names and abstract verbs, but without exception, they are rich in terms with which to designate these entities, whom they are likelier to encounter due to their primitive lifestyle and the remoteness of their habitat. It is thoroughly strange that all cultures should have so many ways of identifying something that does not exist.
These other-dimensional or otherworldly entities belong to cosmic stairways different from humanity's. In other words, their evolution and ascension toward higher levels of intelligence occurs along different paths, although these are in a way similar to those of men. This may possibly be the reason why on some occasions there seems to be a tangent between our lives and their own, and of our their world with ours. The stories and visions of Madame Blavatsky could well be an example of this, along with many others.

We could fil many pages concerning the existence of these mysterious beings, but this would lead us too far along. Our wish is only to leave the reader with an idea that this subject runs much deeper than most people think, and it is, of course, much more real than science believes.

(I have in my possession recordings which I made personally in the southeastern reaches of Mexico--where these sorts of entities are widely abundant and are often called "chaneques" or "aluches"--in which shy country girls tell me how every night they could see beings no taller than a handbreadth having a good time in the watering trough located in their backyard. Their chief amusement was to play and make noise with household dishes, which had been placed there for the girls to wash. The creatures appeared and disappeared through the hole that drained the trough's waters. The reader should know that my life was in jeopardy at times due to this and other investigations and journeys undertaken in this very same region with the aim of observing these elusive characters).


Are their moral values superior to ours?

Let's get back to our gods. When we stated earlier that they were beings located on higher or more elevated steps of their own evolutionary process, we did not imply that they were absolutely superior to us in every which way.

They are undoubtedly superior in some manifestations of intelligence and in strength or power, but the values of living beings are many and widely divergent, aside from the fact that they probably vary from one cosmic stairway to another, with some values being totally unknown while others apply only within a given stairway, and yet others totally incomprehensible within others.

To facilitate our understanding of this, we can take notice of something that is always before us. Many of our moral values, which we tend to attribute absolute universality, do not have it, and in fact, we take care not to apply them in our relations with animals. These values or moral standards are only valid on a human level and we have no problem with ignoring them when dealing with creatures or beings that are not on our own level. When a calf is born we castrate it, then strap it to a plow for the rest of its life and then, by way of a reward, we kill it and eat it. All these acts would be abominable if practiced upon a human being, but we see them as entirely reasonable because we are dealing with a beast.

The fact that "we are dealing with an animal" salves any remorse that we might have, even though we are dealing with a creature whose life is so similar to our own, even down to the "feelings" that a cow exhibits toward its newborn calf.

(However, we must note that not all religions are as disregarding toward life as Christianity is. Some of them--like Jainism in India--hold respect toward all living things as a basic belief.)

If we clearly do not apply some of our moral and legal principals to those beings who are not of our own human order, we should not then be surprised that other non-human beings, who also seem to be stronger and more advanced than us, should not apply certain principles that are probably common to their own kind in their dealings with our kind.

We cannot argue that between us and animals there exists a crucial difference that does not exist among these "superior" beings and ourselves. In other words, animals do not belong to the realm of intelligent beings while we do. We stated earlier that animals, while not endowed with an intelligence akin to our own, are nonetheless in possession of some sort of intelligence with which they do things that we cannot, even if we try. It could well be that in certain cases the difference between our intelligence and that of the gods is greater than between ours and that of animals.


On the other hand, we witness the ferocity and valor with which a female animal defends its young resemble that which a woman can exhibit on given occasions, demostrating that their feelings toward their offspring are quite similar to our own. In spite of this, we have no qualms about separating the young from its mother, or even killing her if it suits our purpose.

All of this has been brought about a propos of our earlier statement that the gods were "superior" to us. Of course, those who know the way in which the gods act would be amazed by such an affirmation of their superiority, since as we will see next, the gods have in some occasions--perhaps every occasion--not treated us well at all, or even been tremendously unjust.

The word "superior", therefore, should not be taken in an absolute manner but in a relative one. The gods are superior in knowledge, physical and psychological prowess, etc., but not precisely in kindness, or other moral values in usage among humans. They undoubtedly have their own canons and criteria for good and evil, beauty and ugliness, etcetera, but are not precisely equal to those that exist among us.

Furthermore, there surely are those among them who adhere to such principles and those who do not abide by them and flaunt them, showing us that they are not quite so "superior" as we might believe at first sight, and that, like us, they are creatures in a process of evolution and far from having achieved absolute perfection.


Summary of their qualities


Before going into the subject of what these laws of evolution that rule both gods and humans are all about, and which we both must comply with or defy, we can sum up the qualities and imperfections of these elusive creatures who give the impression of being engaged in a game of hide-and-seek with humanity:

* They are intelligent, to judge by many of their actions. In other words, they are aware of the world that surrounds them and react according to circumstances. However, on many occasions they do not react as we would, which tells us that their intelligence is in some way or the other different from our own. (We are aware that the mere word "intelligence" contains a universe of aspects, variables and possible explanations that make calibrating the point up to which the intelligence of the gods resembles our own, and up to what point are they intelligent, very difficult).

* If we are to judge by our own behavior patterns, the intelligence of these creatures appears to be far in excess of our own. Without going very far, the devices in which they are sometimes seen carry out maneuvers and have propulsion systems that go well beyond the capability of our most advanced technology.

* They are much better than we at using the laws of nature--not only those that we know, but also others that we have no knowledge of, which is why their actions sometimes appear to be miracles and in antiquity were logically attributed to "the gods".


* Among the physical laws that they know are those which allow them to become visible or invisible to our eyes and even more generally speaking, to become invisible to our senses or even the devices with which we enhance our senses.

* They are tremendously psychic and have a ease for interfering in the physiological and electrical processes of our brain, thus being able to distort our ideas and feelings at their will.

* They are not imprisoned in matter as we are or more correctly, a matter such as our own. The psychic and spiritual field (not to be confused with the "morally good") has a greater place in their being than matter.

* Concerning their origin, it is pure human childishness to say that they're from "over here" or from "over there". They are from nowhere and everywhere at once. The first thing we have to do if to make a great distinction among their own ranks, since there are may more differences among themselves than there are among humans. Some seem to carry out their activities in our planer on a permanent basis and appear to never leave it, considering it to be their "home" as well and themselves to be its chief inhabitants, much like we do (with the great difference that they are aware of our existence whereas we know nothing about theirs). Others appear to have great ease for moving through outer space and it would not be unusual for them to conduct their activities on other planets or places in the Cosmos. It is hard to be certain of any of this, although we are beginning to learn that
the information they give mortals now and then isn't trustworthy. Later on we shall see why they lie or why we misunderstand what they say.

* As I noted in the previous paragraph, ther are major differences among them in all respects: their possible origin, their powers or abilities, their "goodness" or "malice" toward us, etc., etc. I believe that we can safely conclude that there are great animosities among them as well as like-minded groups (*).

But this "kindness" or "malice" that some of them often display toward humans is probably entirely relative, varying according to the circumstances. (A human being can be good toward some people and hostile toward others, and can be good toward one person in the morning and nasty toward the same person in the evening).

(*) Something that might corroborate what we are saying here is the event which occurred on the outskirts of Bogota and which was witnessed by a family heading back to the city. According to the person who told me the details, two UFOs were engaged in a fierce battle against a third one for about five minutes. the two attackers pursued the other at a dizzying speed, making incredible twists and turns in mid-air much in the same way that flies pursue one another, executing maneuvers which are completely impossible for our most modern vehicles.

Also, it could be clearly seen that glowing bullets of some sort were being fired at the other UFO, much like the bullets seen in the electronic games that are so popular these days. (However, it's possible that the entire event was no more than a staged event to make us think they were fighting).

* Between their "world" and ours, or between their dimension and our own, or their level of existence and ours, there are certain differences and physical barriers that they are somehow able to cross, but which do not allow them to carry out their activities with ease or in the natural way a human would, which is the reason that their behavior is often weird and incomprehensible to us.
* One of these barriers is time, to which they have trouble adjusting to or even understanding. On occasions when they have had to strictly conform to our timetables, their punctuality or behavior have been completely erratic.

* They are not immortal (although the Greeks and Romans liked to think so) in the sense that we usually give to that word. Judging by our time patterns, it seems that they remain in their level of existence much longer than we do in ours on Earth. But it seems that when the time comes, they "die" or abandon the state of "godhood" no matter how long they have remained in it.
This could be a result of a cosmic law which we shall discuss later on.

* Some of them tend to choose individual humans to protect them and aid them in very different ways, or else to harass them without stopping until they have annihilated them. In the same way, groups of them--led by a chief--tend to choose groups of humans (tribes, races, nations) and protect them in many ways, although this protection is highly suspect, because rather than protection, it is a manipulation of the human. Sometimes a better use brings about real protection or aid, while at other times only by harming or destroying the individual or tribe can the gods get what they need from it, and they have no qualms about doing it. They function in the same way we deal with animals: whether we help them or destroy them, it's always to use them in one way or another. (Dog owners have a dog not out of love for the dog but out of love for themselves, because either they or someone in their household likes having a dog).

These are the qualities that we can see in the gods. No doubt their personality and intimate psychological processes elude us altogether, in the same way that the depths of the human soul are unfathomable to an animal's rudimentary intelligence, even though they are able to understand our wishes or even guess them.

The Cosmic Laws

Let us examine some of the general rules of the Cosmos to which both gods and humans--and the creatures inferior to us, of course--are subjected to.

* There is perpetual motion and change. Nothing in the cosmos is stationary. Within the seemingly inert stone there is movement: the dizzying movement of trillions of atoms in astonishing order. Just like the electron moves tirelessly around its nucleus at the core of a stone, and the galaxies drift in the abyss of space like manes of hair, the ideas and the "feelings" of the realm of the spirit also change incessantly with a motion that has no need of space or time. Everything renews itself constantly in the Cosmos.

* This movement, taken as a whole, has a rising tendency, although not exactly in a geographic or geometric sense. It is a tendency toward what we childishly call the spiritual from what we childishly refer to as the material; from the less intelligent to the most intelligent, from the small, imperfect and weak to the great, perfect and strong. When the being has reached the stage of awareness or intelligence in its evolution, it seems that this ascension mus be voluntary, and not to ascend supposes some sort of setback or perhaps some sort of sanction.

* This movement is not always uniform or constantly rising, rather, it seems to tke place in steps--at least on most occasions--or stages or thrusts. Seen from another perspective, it could be seen as a spiral or wavelike motion, in which periods of maximum advamce are followed by periods of calm or even apparent regression. This could be the explanation for the death of everything that lives. Seen by the individual from within the vital stage he is living, death seems to be a bad thing. Seen from the outside, death is no more than the end of a stage in the existence of that individual, and the step into a higher level (if the individual has conformed to the law stated earlier concerning evolution or ascension). Taken as a whole, death is only a symptom of the constant pulse of life in the entire Universe.

* Finally, we can end by saying that there are well defined frontiers between the different stairways and steps. Generally speaking, there seems to be a prohibition about transgressing those borders, particularly among beings belonging to different stairways. Among the creatures belonging to different steps or levels (but within the same stairway) the ban appears to be limited to certain acts of destruction or irrational abuse.

This prohibition about crossing borders could be the reason behind the distaste with which all religions and schools of thought that are not considered religions (like theosophy and spiritism) view suicide, since this is an unnatural and violent exit from the stage of existence to which one has been assigned at that moment by the intelligence that rules the Universe.


So that the reader can see that these ideas are neither as strange nor as alien to other investigators of the "Beyond", I shall include here the testimony of an author--John Baines--whom I will quote again later, since after having written my book, I have discovered that his, entitled The Witches Speak, Part II (Kier), has ideas entirely parallel to my own, although he has reached the same conclusions parting from entirely different premises.

"...Certain beings are on an evolutionary scale much higher than
human beings, true gods of space who take advantage of human effort,
but at the same time carry out certain cosmic duties, in other words,
they have an important place in the universal economy. We have
mentioned them earlier as the Archons of destiny. We could also
refer to them as the Gods of the Zodiac since it is they who guide
and regulate human existence on this planet...

"The Archons of destiny are fearsome beings, not because they are evil, but because of their cold and relentless manipulation of the
sapiens..."

"These hidden judges provoke, for instance, without any pity
in their hearts, a world war in which millions of people die. To them
these dead have no more value than the thousands of animals that the
sapiens sacrifices on a daily basis to feed himself."



Later on we shall meet these disquieting Archons, masters of the mysterious world described by John Baines, and we shall see that they do not differ at all from our gods.

[(C) 2019 The Estate of Salvador Freixedo. Translation by Scott Corrales]

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Salvador Freixedo (1923-2019)

Salvador Freixedo (1923-2019)

Sad news from Spain today. Salvador Freixedo, very likely the most compelling personality of the Spanish-speaking paranormal world, has left us for the great beyond. Freixedo became a well-known personality on television screens from Mexico to Argentina in the 1970s with his earnest discussions of paranormal phenomena and his posture on church doctrine, which led to his removal from the priesthood. This, however, did not keep him from writing a number of scathing indictments of religious dogma (El cristianismo, un mito más; Mi iglesia duerme and others), or as he wrote: "The true God of the Universe, the Supreme Intelligence totally unfathomable in its entirety to the human mind, does not go around demanding the constant adoration of it creations or signs of their affection like some jealous lover. This jibes with the concept that Christianity has of God: a very powerful "dude" who resembles us closely in both our positive and negative aspects. It is logical that such a god would require devotion, worship and even gifts. But the True God is not a beggar; the True God continues his ceaseless task of creating and taking pleasure in how his creatures unfold each according to its own nature, without any need for them to constantly turn to Him to thank him or ask Him not to condemn them to some eternal punishment. In enunciating this commandment we are venturing into an area in which the nascent cosmic theology meets the old dogmatic theology and clashes with it head-on. [...] If the Christian god were really a father, why should he demand of his children suffering and the cross? All the explanations that Christianity and other religions give us to solve this mystery are inconsistent and fade away when examined without fanaticism and prejudice. To make humans come into the world already guilty of a sin and to threaten them immediately with eternal hellfire are aberrations fit only for sick minds and it is high time that civilized humans rid themselves of them once and for all."

His contributions to ufology were no less iconoclastic, as readers of Flying Saucer Review and other publications discovered. Defendámonos de los dioses, the keystone of his work in the UFO field, equated the 'alien' presence to the multiple, nefarious 'gods' that have bedeviled humankind since the caves. The government of Ecuador discreetly solicited his advice concerning UFOs in the late 1970s, following a rash of aircraft disappearances over the Andes--some of them within range of the airport traffic tower. On the other hand, he was accused by Mexican authorities of inciting a panic when he personally investigated a number of deaths that had occurred in San Luis Potosí (north of Mexico City) in which the blood had been extracted form the victims in almost vampiric fashion. Freixedo was no stranger to the United States, having both taught and studied in this country: American audiences were first able to hear his message directly at the First World UFO Congress held in Phoenix AZ in May 1991. His presentation, entitled "Gods and Spacemen", was well-received by those in attendance.



In 1992, Illuminet Press published Visionaries, Mystics and Contactees - the first translation of his works into English - as part of an effort to make his work known to English-reading audiences. Events conspired to keep Defendamonos de los dioses (Beware of the Gods) and La Granja Humana (The Human Farm) from ever seeing the light of day.

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Argentina: Did a UFO Fly Over Carlos Paz?

Source: PLANETA UFO and El Diario de Carlos Paz (Argentina)
Date: 10.24.2019

Argentina: Did a UFO Fly Over Carlos Paz?

CARLOS PAZ - Social media was stirred in recent hours due to the dissemination of a photograph taken by a local of Carlos Paz who claims seeing an "alien spaceship" flying over the Aerosilla and Cerro de la Cruz. The photo was taken by Liliana Gomez in early morning hours of October 20, 2019 from the "Altos de Carlos Paz" housing complex.



Since the late 1970s, the mountain ranges of Valle de Punilla became a pilgrimage destination of lovers of extraterrestrial phenomena. They come at various times of the years in hopes of having a "close encounter of the third kind" and see UFOS. The proximity of our town to Capilla del Monte, Argentina's UFO capital, made it possible for many cases of "strange lights seen in the sky" having their source in Carlos Paz residents.

Ufologist Sergio Soria, who usually uploads images on sightings in the mountains, analyzed this photo and explained: "As you can see, this is a UFO flying in the proximity of Cerro de la Aerosilla with three lights on its structure."

[Note: Liliana Gómez posts a comment to the newspaper article with a correction: "It should be noted that I did not see an ALIEN SPACESHIP. It is an unidentified flying object that does not appear in my other images. Thank you!]

[Translation (c) 2019 S. Corrales, IHU with thanks to Guillermo Giménez, Planeta UFO and Liliana Gómez]

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Se busca nombre para una estrella y su exoplaneta

La Unión Astronómica Internacional ha organizado una votación para que más de cien países elijan el nombre de una estrella y un exoplaneta cada uno. A España le ha tocado bautizar a la estrella amarilla enana HD 149143 y su planeta HD 149143 b, situados a 240 años-luz de la Tierra. Hasta el 12 de noviembre se puede elegir entre doce parejas de nombres como Elcano y Victoria, Luz y sombra o Isabel y Diego, los amantes de Teruel.
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Argentina: Strange Object over Tucumán

Contributing editor Guillermo Giménez has called our atention to a video that has made the rounds of social media. It involves an unexplained aerial object (UAO, yoo-ay-oh, how's that for acronyms?) in the skies of the city of Tucumán in northern Argentina. The aerial intruder was seen from the heights of a building in the city (Salta and San Martin streets, to be precise). A news item states "the object projected very bright lights and could be seen from various parts of the city.

Don't take our word for it, see for yourselves: https://youtu.be/ry235wEaBxc

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Primera detección de un elemento pesado recién nacido en el espacio

Tras la fusión de las dos estrellas de neutrones que generaron las famosas ondas gravitacionales registradas en la Tierra en 2017 se formó estroncio, un elemento pesado utilizado en los fuegos artificiales. Un equipo internacional de astrónomos lo ha confirmado ahora con la ayuda de un instrumento del Observatorio Europeo Austral, en Chile. El descubrimiento proporciona una de las piezas que faltaban al rompecabezas de la formación de elementos químicos.
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Las cintas de cassette escasean (cosas del óxido de hierro)

Quedan pocos días para que entremos en noviembre de 2019, ese mes mítico que pintaba un futuro en el que replicantes y spinners poblaban la ciudad de Los Ángeles en Blade Runner. Ahora que ese futuro nos ha alcanzado, ¿qué narices nos van a importar las cintas de cassette? Pues, al parecer, más de lo que hubiéramos pensado hace no mucho tiempo.

El estándar de cinta de cassette compacta para grabación de sonido, desarrollado por Phillips e introducido en el mercado en 1962, fue siempre el hermano pobre del vinilo. Coexistió durante décadas con los discos, siendo un formato barato con el que poder grabar y distribuir música por doquier. Conservo cientos de cintas de cassette con grabaciones de radio, de mi época en emisoras locales y de Dj, hace ya más de dos décadas. En los ochenta y hasta finales de la década siguiente, las cassettes se encontraban por todas partes. Ni siquiera el disco compacto (Compact Disc o CD) pudo hacerle sombra, más que nada porque era demasiado caro. La calidad de las grabaciones en cassette era, y es, muy mala, comparada con otros soportes, pero ante el precio y la versatilidad/facilidad de grabación, la cosa compensaba.

Llegó el mundo digital, los MP3 y demás familia, el streaming e Internet y, bien entrado el siglo XXI, casi nadie se acordaba ya de las viejas cassettes. El vinilo comenzó a renacer hace unos años, más que nada como ejercicio de postureo, por sus cualidades materiales y por puro romanticismo. Al igual que las cassettes, conservo cientos de vinilos de los ochenta, y compro nuevos de vez en cuando. Pero es por puro romanticismo, me encanta contemplar el movimiento de la aguja sobre los microsurcos de plástico. Spotify y demás parientes son geniales y los uso a diario, así que, ¿para qué volver a las cassettes? Será, de nuevo, por sus cualidades materiales y como algo nostálgico (muchas veces hoy día se trata de nostalgia de lo no vivido), el tener algo tangible entre manos, más “cálido”, o vaya usted a saber. El caso es que las ventas de cintas de cassette de audio están subiendo como la espuma desde hace dos o tres años (el vinilo también sigue en ascenso, mientras los CD y DVD viven su particular crisis). El renacer estético “ochentero” parece no tener fin, aunque supongo que se tratará de una moda pasajera.

El problema viene cuando la moda supera a la producción. Hace varios días se hacían eco varios medios de una nota del principal fabricante de cintas de cassette de los Estados Unidos, NAC, que paso a traducir libremente:

A los clientes de cassettes de NAC. Como usted sabe, hay una escasez mundial de óxido gamma-férrico de alta calidad, el material magnético utilizado para hacer cintas de grabación de audio de calidad profesional. La única fábrica de refinado este material ha estado en renovación durante la mayor parte del año 2019. Como resultado, National Audio ha recibido sólo dos toneladas de óxido para grabación este año. Esto no es suficiente para permitirnos fabricar suministros de cinta adecuados para atender todos los pedidos en nuestro plazo habitual de 30 días. Como resultado, actualmente mantenemos a todos los clientes abastecidos tan rápido como llegan las materias primas. Estamos a la espera de la entrega de pedidos pendientes de más de cincuenta toneladas de óxido férrico. Se nos ha notificado que NAC recibirá al menos once toneladas de óxido en octubre. Después de eso, nuestro proveedor espera reanudar las entregas programadas. Mientras tanto, estamos instalando más equipos de fabricación y ampliando nuestro personal para servir mejor a nuestros clientes.

Y en esas estamos, casi en noviembre de 2019, con carestía de óxido férrico para la fabricación de cassettes, dado ese aumento de demanda nostálgica que pocos esperaban. No he logrado encontrar detalles sobre ese único productor mundial que existe en la actualidad, tal como menciona la nota de prensa, pero si el éxito de las cassettes sigue adelante, seguro que aparecen nuevos fabricantes para aprovechar la ola mientras dure.

El óxido de hierro (III), conocido antiguamente como óxido férrico, se encuentra en estado natural en la hematita. Este material es purificado y adaptado para servir de soporte de grabación magnética en las cassettes. Este óxido, en fase gamma (γ-Fe₂O₃), al ser ferromagnético, se deposita sobre el soporte de la cinta en forma de partículas nanométricas ultrafinas. Nacen así las cintas vírgenes que, sometidas a los campos magnéticos de los cabezales de grabación, reorientan sus partículas para recoger analógicamente la música o la voz que deseamos guardar para el futuro (mientras dure el efecto, claro, porque la obsolescencia de las cintas de cassette, como sucede en todos los soportes habidos y por haber, es un problema a la hora de conservar la información grabada).

Con los años se desarrollaron otros tipos de cinta de cassette mejoradas, por ejemplo con compuestos de cromo, pero el óxido de hierro sigue estando ahí, en la base de la producción de cintas. Lo que me pregunto es, ¿hasta cuándo durará la moda?

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Rotaciones cuánticas inesperadas en isótopos de cadmio

Hasta ahora los isótopos estables de cadmio se consideraban como el típico ejemplo de núcleos atómicos que vibran alrededor de una forma esférica, pero investigadores de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid y otros centros internacionales han demostrado que estos sistemas cuánticos tienen una estructura mucho más compleja, donde coexisten formas más exóticas con aspecto de melón o lenteja.
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Tormentas múltiples en el polo norte de Saturno

Hasta ahora se habían observado dos tipos de tormentas en Saturno: las colosales Grandes Manchas Blancas y otras mucho más 'pequeñas' y aisladas. Investigadores de la Universidad del País Vasco y la Politécnica de Cataluña informan por primera vez de un tercer tipo de tormentas intermedias y múltiples, como las cuatro que se observaron en 2018 en la región polar norte del gigante gaseoso.
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Matemáticas para detectar noticias falsas en Twitter

Un equipo de la Universidad de Granada y el Imperial College de Londres han analizado matemáticamente qué características presentan los tuits que contienen información falsa y han propuesto un sistema informático para detección de bulos. El trabajo ha utilizado datos de Twitter sobre las elecciones presidenciales de EE UU en 2016.
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Un ‘piano’ molecular para comunicar estímulos externos

Investigadores del centro CiQUS de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela han creado un material sensor que actúa como un teclado molecular. Está basado en el conflicto quiral, un efecto apenas descrito en química de polímeros, y su 'música' o respuesta quiro-óptica informa sobre diversos estímulos, como la presencia de cationes metálicos en una disolución.
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Mexico: Alleged UFO Flies Over Ciudad Madero Refinery.

Source: El Heraldo de Mexico and Planeta UFO
Date: 10.12.2019

Mexico: Alleged UFO Flies Over Ciudad Madero Refinery
By Carlos Juarez

The alleged craft was saucer-shaped and surrounded by glittering lights, making it visible despite the pervasive cloudiness.
Photos were taken by the eyewitnesses own cellphone cameras.

Photos of an alleged UFO have circulated on social media as it flew over the facilities of the Francisco I. Maderio Refinery, property of PEMEX, in Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas.



These events were made known by public transit operators as well as the employees of the state-owned company itself, who say such sightings are nothing new.

The putative craft was saucer-shaped and surrounded by glittering lights, which made it visible despite the pervasive cloudiness.

Photos were taken by the cellphone cameras of the eyewitnesses themselves, mainly public transit users and taxicab drivers, as well as vendors who do business in the morning in the Refinery area.

It was reported that the sighting took place at Access Gate 1 to the Ciudad Madero refining plant. Workers say this is not the first time they have witness such a thing. According to local media, the event took place between 6:50 and 7:00 a.m. this Saturday.

The existence of an urban legend in southern Tamaulipas should be noted, concerning the presence of an alien base in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico. According to believers, [these aliens] are in charge of safeguarding the region against hurricanes and tropical storms.

[Translation (c) 2019 S. Corrales, IHU with thanks to Carlos Juarez, El Heraldo and Guillermo Giménez, Planeta UFO]

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Mexico: UFO Over Ciudad Madero Tamaulipas

Source: El Mañana (newspaper) and Ana Luisa Cid
Date: 10.14.2019

Mexico: UFO Over Ciudad Madero Tamaulipas

An alien base allegedly exists in the depths of the sea some 40 kilometers away from Playa Miramar. According to local ufologists, these objects protect the area against meteorological phenomena. Sightings by local fishermen descibe the emergence of strange craft from the sea, and they have on occasion had contact with beings from other planets.

[Translation (c) 2019 S. Corrales, IHU with thanks to Ana Luisa Cid and Planeta UFO]

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Argentina: Mountain Climbers Encounter Yeti in the Himalayas

Source: Planeta UFO
Date: 10.15.2019

Argentina: Mountain Climbers Encounter Yeti in the Himalayas

October 1971. The third Argentinean expedition to the Himalayas under the command of Lt. Col. Hector Cativa Tolosa had been split into three groups. Camp No.1 was in the lead and in mid-October found itself at an elevation of 6500 meters at temperatures of 30 to 40 degrees below zero.

On the 16th, as the expeditionaries returned to their campsite after having gone out to make repairs to a little bridge, they were in for a shock. Their tents had been destroyed by the primal rage of an unknown being. Cans containing foodstuffs had been torn open and emptied out; remnants of food were scattered on the snow.

A "strange animal" had left footsteps measuring 34 cm long x 18 cm wide. Judging from their depth, the creature must have been enormous, with a weight close to 300 kilograms.

The news was received at 0100 hours on October 19th in the city of San Juan (Argentina) through a radio link made by the Club Andino Mercedario. The report was subsequently substantiated by Mr. Salles, the director of Radio Mitre, and by Mr. Cagnelli, the news director, who connected to the ham radio network that followed the mountain climbers' exploits (La Razón newspaper, 10-19-1971).

On March 25th the previous year, Don Wihillans, leader of the British expedition, had seen the mysterious creature at 4500 meters through binoculars. "It resembled a strange human figure, resembling a large gorilla or abnormally large chimp." Its tracks were found in the snow the next day.

[Translation (c) 2019 S. Corrales, IHU with thanks to Guillermo Giménez, Planeta UFO]

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Descubren a Borisov, un cometa procedente del espacio exterior

Después del hallazgo de ‘Oumuamua hace dos años, un nuevo objeto procedente del exterior del sistema solar, Borisov, ha sido detectado por un astrónomo aficionado. Al contrario que con su predecesor, esta vez no se tiene ninguna duda de que se trata de un cometa. Investigadores de la Universidad Jagiellonian de Cracovia publican hoy los detalles de este cuerpo celeste que solo estará con nosotros hasta septiembre del 2020.
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Un simulador cuántico analógico para resolver problemas químicos

Un equipo científico liderado por los físicos españoles Ignacio Cirac y Javier Argüello-Luengo ha propuesto un modelo alternativo para la realización de simulaciones químicas de moléculas. El simulador ha sido probado con éxito para reproducir el comportamiento de la capa de electrones de una molécula de hidrógeno.
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Los creadores de las baterías de iones de litio ganan el Premio Nobel de Química

Los investigadores John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham y Akira Yoshino han sido los galardonados este año con el Premio Nobel de Química por el desarrollo de baterías de iones de litio. Estas baterías ligeras, recargables y potentes se usan en la actualidad en todo, desde los teléfonos móviles hasta los ordenadores portátiles y los coches eléctricos.
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Nobel de Física a un ‘historiador’ del universo y dos pioneros en la caza de exoplanetas

La Real Academia Sueca de las Ciencias ha anunciado hoy que el Premio Nobel de Física ha sido para el canadiense James Peebles, por sus descubrimientos teóricos en cosmología, y para los suizos Michel Mayor y Didier Queloz, por el hallazgo del primer planeta extrasolar que orbita una estrella similar al Sol.
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Peru: Alleged UFO Photographed Over La Palma

Source: PLANETA UFO and Astroufp Apu
Date: 10.08.2019


Peru: Alleged UFO Photographed Over La Palma

"An alleged UFO captured in broad daylight on Saturday, October 5 [2019] ain the La Palma sector of Ica, Peru. The image shows a lens-shaped object with a bluish-violet hue with a certain symmetry to its structure. The photo has been provided courtesy of Mr. Rolando Ramos, renowned author and cultural facilitator, and was taken on his cellphone."

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Chile: "Not a Meteor" - Geologists Cannot Explain Fires on Chiloé Island

Source: RT and Planeta UFO
Date: 10.05.2019

Chile: "Not a Meteor" - Geologists Cannot Explain Fires on Chiloé Island

Geologists from the South American country denied that a fireball had set pastures on fire on the island of Chiloé.

A team of geologists from the National Geology and Mining Service of Chile (Sernageomin) analyzed the site where a meteorite allegedly fell on September 25 of this year, dismissing the possibility that a bolie (fireball) had caused several sources of fire.

The investigation was conducted from the Dalcahue area on the island of Chiloé in the southern region of the country. The seven spots with burned pastureland were evaluated. When preliminary results were presented on September 28, they revealed that no remains or evidence of a meteorite impact had been found.

Furthermore, Sernageomin envoys spoke with local residents, who stated that they had not seen the putative fireball and had not heard sounds linked to the impact of a foreign body.

While the presence of meteorite was initially discarded, geologists gathered soil samples to conduct a more thorough examination.

[Translation (c) 2019 S. Corrales, IHU with thanks to Guillermo Giménez, Planeta UFO]

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Las cocinas solares de Adnan Tarcici

Horno solar para cocinar diseñado por Adnan Tarcici. Popular Mechanics, enero de 1950.

Repasando las páginas de un viejo ejemplar de la revista Popular Mechanics, concretamente la edición de enero de 1950, me encontré con una pequeña nota acerca del uso de la luz solar para cocinar.

No es algo muy extraño, la luz solar se lleva utilizando para calentar fluidos y para cocinar desde hace décadas, pero me llamó la atención el tipo de horno solar que se mencionaba en la revista.

En la década de los setenta, en medio de la crisis del petróleo, se desarrollaron en muchos países diversos proyectos que pretendían lograr un modo económico para cocinar. Así por ejemplo, en la India, se crearon interesantes aparatos de refrigeración solar así como varios modelos de cocinas de tipo horno solar que tuvieron cierta difusión.

En los años setenta, en la India, se ensayaron diversos tipos de hornos solares domésticos para cocinar. Fuente de la imagen: The coming age of solar energy. D. S. Halacy, Jr. Harper & Row. Nueva York. 1973.

De todos los diseñadores de hornos solares para cocinar, el ya mencionado Adnan Tarcici es quien más me ha asombrado. Su pasión a la hora de desarrollar varios modelos de esta tecnología no tenía límites. Tarcici, profesor yemení de origen libanés, que fue delegado en las Naciones Unidas, estaba preocupado por la falta de acceso a la energía necesaria para cocinar en muchos lugares del mundo, sobre todo en países poco desarrollados. Sin embargo, precisamente en esos lugares, es el sol lo que “sobra”. Por ello, desde finales de los años cuarenta Tarcici dedicó grandes esfuerzos para diseñar y difundir sus modelos de horno solar para cocinar, logrando numerosas patentes internacionales al respecto (sus primeras patentes a este respecto fueron solicitadas en 1949: patentes estadounidenses US2806134A, US2770229A y US2770230A). Su modelo más perfeccionado, desarrollado en todos su detalles en una patente de 1991 (US5090399A), es un prodigio de la técnica, sencillo pero eficiente. Se trata de un horno solar portátil, dotado de láminas plegables de aluminio que permite que el aparato se pueda transportar cómodamente como si se tratase de una maleta. Este diseño ha merecido el reconocimiento del MoMA y forma parte de sus colecciones sobre diseño.

Gráfico de la patente US5090399A de 1991 de Adnan Tarcici: “Solar cooker with a parabolic reflector”.

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“Podremos meter todos los escritos de la humanidad en un centímetro cúbico”

Nanorrobots que se inyectan en la sangre, materiales que se autorreparan o sistemas de almacenamiento de información sin límites podrían ser posibles gracias a máquinas moleculares. El químico francés Jean-Pierre Sauvage, que ha sido uno de los ponentes esta semana en el festival Passion For Knowledge en San Sebastián, logró diseñar, junto a su equipo, estos diminutos artefactos con múltiples aplicaciones. 
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Observan por primera vez cómo se forman las estrellas gemelas

Un equipo internacional con participación española ha observado cómo se forman los sistemas estelares binarios. Los astrónomos han estudiado el sistema [BHB2007] 11, el miembro más joven de un pequeño grupo de objetos estelares en la nebulosa oscura Barnard 5, y han podido ver su estructura interna. 
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Un nuevo método permite detectar propiedades exóticas de los materiales

Físicos de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid han desarrollado una nueva técnica para la detección de estados topológicos de la materia. El hallazgo abre una nueva vía para la comprensión de estos estados que determinan las propiedades ópticas y electrónicas de los materiales.
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